Diğer

K Vitamini Yetmezligi ve Tedavisi

  • Saadet Akarsu

J Curr Pediatr 2007;5(1):-

Patofizyoloji

Vitamin K’nin vücut rezervi saglikli bireylerde tam diyet alim yoklugunda dahi bir hafta yeterlidir. Diyet VK’nin ana kaynagidir. Eriskinlerde günlük VK gereksinimi 100-200 mg/gün’dür. Vitamin K’nin %80-85’i terminal ileumden lenfatik sistem içine emilir. Etkili emilim için ileumun normal villus yapisi yani sira, safra tuzlari ve normal yag emilimi gereklidir (7). Diyetteki VK-1’in doku VK-2’ye dönüsümü barsak bakterilerine bagimli degildir (14). Vitamin K1 glutamik asit rezidülerinin bir serisinin post translasyonel gama karboksilasyonu için kofaktördür. Bu reaksiyon, normal trombotik proçesi baslatmak için; VK bagimli proteinlerin kalsiyum kanallari yoluyla yüzey fosfolipitlerine baglanmasini saglar ve pihtilasma faktörlerinin aktif formlarinin sentezi gerçeklesir. Bu VK bagimli proteinler kan pihtilasmasina sinirli degildir. Hücre siklus regülasyonu ve hücre-hücre adhezyonu (tirozin kinaz) için de önemlidir. Kanser gelisiminde tirozin kinaz aktivasyonu önemlidir. Tirozin kinaz reseptörü olan Axl, VK bagimli gamakarboksiglutamil proteinini kodlayan; spesifik ligand büyüme duraksatma spesifik gen 6 (Gas6)’yi baglar. Gastrik karsinogenez süresince Gas6-Axl sinyal yolu rol oynamaktadir. Vitamin K yoklugunda bir protein (serum desgamakarboksi protrombin [DCP]): (Protein induced by vitamin K absence: PIVKA) meydana gelir. PIVKA üreten pankreasin hepatoid karsinomasi da tanimlanmistir. Beyinde VK-2’nin VK-1’e dönüsme kapasitesi vardir (5,6,7,6,7,8,9,10,11).


Kanama Bölgeleri

Genelde dogumdan 2-6 gün sonra görülen kanama injeksiyon yerleri, diseti kanamasi, deride kolayca morarma, göbek ya da gastrointestinal sistem (GIS)’de meydana gelebilir. Koyu melena özelliginde diski, kanli kusma, burun kanamasi ve kanli idrar görülür. Sünnetin 7 günden önce yapildigi ve proflaksinin yapilmadigi ülkelerde yaygindir. Intrakraniyal ya da retroperitoneal hayati tehdit eden kanama meydana gelebilir (4,5,6).


Vitamin K Bagimli Faktörlerin Eksikligi ile Birlikte Olan Nedenler (2, 7)

1.Normal yenidogan: Yasamin 3 ayina kadar normaldir.2.Preterm: a.Vitamin K’ya cevap veren b.Vitamin K’ya cevap vermeyen (immatürite, infeksiyon, hipoksi, azalmis hepatik perfüzyon)3.Diyet kaynakli:a.Inek sütü (6 mg/L)b.Anne sütü (1.5-2 mg/L): Ticari formulalar (80 µg/L)4.Degismis bakteriyel kolonizasyon: a.Kusma b.Asiri ishalc.Malabsorbsiyon sendromlari (çölyak hastaligi, kistik fibröz, biliyer atrezi, GIS obstriksiyonu)d.Antibiyotikler (anne sütünde bulunanlarda dahil): Sefalosporinler (VK emilimini azaltir) Asiri kullanim zararli bakterileri ve VK aktive eden bakterileri öldürür.5.Hepatosellüler hastaliklar: a.Akut (Reye sendromu, akut hepatit)b.Kronik (siroz, Wilson hastaligi)6.Ilaçlar: Kumadin, salisilatlar, antikonvülzanlar, rifampisin, izoniazid, bazi sülfa ilaçlari (karaciger fonksiyonlarinin degistirerek ya da normal barsak bakterilerinin olusturdugu florayi yok ederek)


Vitamin K ile Proflaksi Yapilma Nedenleri

1. Asiri kanamaOsteoporoz: Kemiklerde kalsiyumun uygun kullanimi için gereklidir. Tedavide daha çok VK-2 kullanilir. Kemik matriks proteinlerinden özellikle osteokalsin, VK gerektiren kalsiyumla; gama karboksilasyon gerektirir (5,6,7,6,7,8,9,10,11).2. Yilan sokmasi3. Kistik fibröz4. Böbrek taslari: Tas olusumunu önler.5. Vücut kokusu: Bitkisel yiyeceklerde bulunan, VK’nin suda eriyen formu klorofil; vücut, fekal ve idrar kokularini kontrol eder.6. Deri yaralari: Deri yaralarini tedavi etmede suda eriyen form kullanilir. Bu klorofilin antioksidan etkisi ile olabilir. Klorofil bitkinin yesil rengini verir. Çatlamis kan damarlarindan kaynaklanan kirmizilik, yanik ve günes yanigi irritasyonlarinda, lazer tedavisi sonrasi görülen morluklarda ve deri skarlarinin tedavisinde kullanilir. Arindirici kremlerde bulunur. 7. Vitamin K-3, kanserli kemik iligi hücrelerinin büyümesini inhibe edebilir. Antikanser bir ajandir (52,53). Vitamin K-2 bazi lösemik hücrelerin apopitozisine neden olur (16). 1998’de Pittsburgh Üniversitesi’nde yapilan bir hayvan çalismasinda VK-3’ün kanser hücrelerinin büyümesini yavaslattigi bulunmustur (53,54). Vitamin C ile birlikte yüksek dozlarda tümör büyümesini inhibe edebilir. Bu durum önemli antiproliferatif ve apopitotik etki nedeniyledir (55). Vitamin K-3, insanlarda ciddi anemiye sebep olabilir. Kanser tedavisi ya da önlenmesinde VK destegi hakkinda yeterli bilimsel veri yoktur. Insanda yapilan ve daha fazla arastirmaya ihtiyaç vardir (56-58).


Frekans

Kanamasiz VK eksikligi 5 günden daha küçük infantlarin %50’sinde görülebilir. Yasamin ilk 2 haftasinda travmatize olmayan saglikli term bebeklerde klasik hemorajik hastalik, VK proflaksisi yapilmayan infantlarin %0.1-2 (ortalama: %1)’sinde meydana gelir. Daha tehlikeli olan geç kanama riski bunun üçte biridir. Anne sütü alanlarda geç VKDB prevalansi, proflaksi olmayan her 100.000 canli dogumda yaklasik 20 olgudur (41).


Laboratuvar

Saglikli yenidoganda protrombin zamani (PT) ve aktive parsiyel tromboplastin zamani (aPTT) uzundur. Trombin olusumu eriskine göre %50 yavastir. Oldukça yüksek alfa-2-makroglobulin plazmini kolayca bloke ederek yenidogani kanamalardan korur. In vitro yapilan kanama zamani testi von Willebrand faktör antijen (vWF Ag) ve aktivitesinin yüksekligi nedeniyle yenidoganlarda kisadir. Yenidoganlarda trombositer faz iyi çalisir (1). Vitamin K eksikligi kanamasinda PT ve aPTT degerlendirilmelidir. Bu durumda PT ve aPTT uzar. En duyarli ve akademik tani koydurucu belirteç uygun antikorlarla (ELISA) ölçülen PIVKA’in yüksek seviyesidir. Simdilerde VK eksikligini belirlemek için postmortem degerlendirilen PIVKA II gösterilmistir (1). Normal PT 13 saniyedir. Vitamin K eksikliginde PT birkaç dakika olabilir. Eriskinlerde VK’nin plazma seviyesi (0.2-1.0 ng/mL) ölçülebilir ve alima göre degisir. Infantlarda düsük seviyelerde oldugu için ölçümü gereksizdir (5,6,6,7,6,7,8,9,10,11).


Karaciger hastaliklari ve yaygin damar içi tüketim koagülopatisi (DIC) ile ayirici tanisi yapilmalidir. Vitamin K eksikligine bali kanamada F I ve trombin zamani (TT) normal olarak bulunur. Karaciger hastaliklarinda F II, F VII, F IX, F X’a ilaveten F I ve F V seviyesi de düser. Yaygin damar içi tüketim koagülopatisinde ise, parçalanmis eritrositler ve trombosit sayisinda azalmasinin yanisira; F I, F V, F XIII seviyesi azalir ve TT uzar (2).Protrombin zamani hafif yükselmisse diyetle yetersiz alim düsünülür. Bu durumda VK’dan zengin yiyeceklerle beslenme artirilir. Protrombin zamani düzelmezse agir karaciger hastaligi ya da DIC düsünülür. Olgular hematolog (laboratuvar sonuçlarini yorumlama) ve gastroenterolog (enflamatuar barsak hastaligi, malabsorbsiyon ve parankimal karaciger hastaligi gibi nedenleri saptama) tarafindan konsülte edilmelidir. Anne bol yesil yaprakli sebze ile beslenirse sütündeki VK düzeyini artirabilir. Kronik malnutrisyon (alkol bagimliligi), diyet yoluyla alinan vitaminlerin sinirli alimi (supru, enflamatuar barsak hastaliklari, kisa barsak sendromu, askaris enfeksiyonu ya da özellikle yagda eriyen vitaminlerin emildigi terminal ileumun rezeksiyonu) ve uzun dönem parenteral beslenmede VK eksikligi riski artar (2, 3). Vitamin B12 eksikligi, emilim bozulmasi ya da istah kaybi yüzünden bozulmus beslenme nedeniyle, infantta VK eksikliginin önemli bir sebebi olabilir (63). Büyük miktarda vitamin E antagonize edebilir. Endojen koagülasyon inhibitörlerinin meydana geldigi lupus antikoagülan gibi hastaliklarda eksiklik meydana gelebilir. Kilo verdiren ilaçlar yag emilimini engeller. Böylece VK emilimini engeller. Radyoterapi ve X-ray VK’yi tüketebilir. Devamli hemodiyaliz ve agir yaniklarda da eksiklik meydana gelir (64). Proflaksi

Düsük günlük doz damla sekli en iyi fizyolojik uygulama seklidir. Ancak henüz böyle bir ürünle ilgilenen ticari kurum olmamistir. Yiyecek ve Ilaç Yönetimi (FDA) kurumu çiftlik hayvanlarinin yiyeceklerine VK-3 destegine izin vermesine ragmen, insanda izin vermez (6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35). Dogumda genel proflaksiye ilaveten muhtemel risk gruplarinda ilave VK gerekir (1). Antikonvulzif tedavi alan hamile kadinlara, dogum öncesi 2-4 hafta için veya üçüncü trimestr süresince günde 5 mg VK-1 destegi verilmelidir. Dogumdan 48 ve 2 saat önce uygulanabilir. Hamilelikte VK desteginin güvenilirligi bilinmemektedir (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65). Protrombin kompleksinde yasamin ilk günlerinde meydana gelen düsmeyi VK’nin 25 mg kadar küçük dozu dahi önleyebilir (2). Rutin proflaksi bazi ülkelerde her bebek (her preterm için henüz degil) için uygulanmaktadir. IM proflaksi genel uygulanan proflaksi sekli oldu. Günlük ihtiyaç duyulan VK-3 dozundan, 1000 kez daha fazla; olan rutin 1 mg injeksiyon uygulanmaktadir (66). Bütün yenidoganlara dogumun 1 saati içinde 0.5-1 mg VK-1’in tek IM injeksiyon uygulamasi önerilir. Agiz yolu ile proflakside dogumda 2-4 mg po ve anne sütü alanlara ilave dozlar verilmelidir (1,2,3,4,5,2,3,4,5,6,7,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48). Agiz yoluyla kullanilan ürünler lisans alirlarsa daha popüler olacaklardir. Ancak total dozu belirlemek için ilave çalismalara gerek vardir (67-69). Agiz yoluyla proflaksi IM kadar güvenilir olabilir (6). Ancak özellikle anne sütü alanlarda yeterli olmaz (5,6,7). Dogumun 12 saati içinde, po 1 mg VK-1 182,000 anne sütü alan bebege verilmis. Ilave 3 doz taburcu olduktan her 2 hafta sonra verilmis. 4 bebekte geç VK eksikligi gelismistir. Bunlarin 2’sinde personel kullanim sekline uymamistir. Diger 2’sinde ise alfa 1 antitripsin eksikligi saptanmistir. Anne sütü alan bebeklerde po yol tercih edilecekse 2-4 mg uygulamasinin 15. gün tekrar edilmesi önerilmektedir (1). Dogumdan hemen sonra po 2 mg ve 4-7. günlerde 2 mg uygulanabilir. Bu uygulama seklinde yalnizca anne sütü alan bebeklerde emzirme döneminin sonuna kadar ayda bir kez 2 mg olarak ek dozlar önerilir. Erken ve geç VKDB riski tek 1 mg IM VK-1 depo injeksiyon ile ya da yasamin ilk 3 ayi için haftada bir kez po 1 mg alinmasi ile tamamen ortadan kaldirilabilir. Tanimlanmamis karaciger hastaligi olan bebekler dört 1 mg (ya da 3 kez 2 mg) po doz ile korunamazlar (41). Agiz yoluyla proflaksi klasik VKDB’ni önlemede IM uygulamaya göre daha az pahali ve daha az travmatiktir. Buna ragmen po VK-1 ya da VK-3 geç VKDB’ni önlemede IM kadar etkili degildir (1). Preterm infantlarda 0.1 mg/kg IV ya da po VK proflaksisinin geç baslangiçli VKBD’yi önlemede yeterli olmadigi belirtilmistir (70). 1000 g altindaki bebeklerde 0.3 mg/kg olarak kullanilmasi önerilmektedir (71). Preterm ve hasta termlerde 0.3 mg/kg IV VK sonrasi kan seviyesi yaklasik 1. günde 190 ng/mL ve 5. günde 100 ng/mL olarak saptanmistir (72). Pretermlerde VK proflaksisinde, farkli dozlarda uygulamada; 0.5 mg kullanimla ayni basari saglandigi görülmüstür (Tablo 3). 0.5-1 mg IV uygulama sonrasi gün 2 ve 10’da VK seviyesi IV’e karsi IM grupta yaklasik 2 kat daha yüksek bulunmustur (Tablo 4) (7). Peri/intraventriküler hemoraji 35 hafta alti infantlarda VK bagimli koagülasyon faktörlerinin daha düsük konsantrasyonlari nedeniyle daha yaygindir. Terme göre pretemlerde VK bagimli koagülasyon faktörleri düsük bulunmustur. Anneye antenatal 10 mg (2-7 gün), IM ya da IV VK-1 verdikten sonra pretem kordon kaninda F II, IV ve X artmis bulunmustur. Peri/intraventriküler hemoraji VK-1 alan anne bebeklerinde %32 (almayanlarda %53) olarak belirgin az bulunmustur (73).Yasamin ilk 10 gününde TPN alan preterm infantlarda 0.5 mg olarak daha düsük doz IV ya da IM VK’ya ragmen serum seviyesi çok yüksek bulunmustur. Daha büyük çocuklar için önerilen 1 mg/kg/gün ilave ile VK büyük oranda artar (74). Dogum sonrasi tek doz 1 mg IM VK klasik VKDB’ni önlemede etkilidir. Hem IM hem de po (1 mg) VK proflaksisi 1-7 günler arasi koagülasyon durumunu gösteren biyokimyasal indisleri olumlu etkiler (60,61).Anne sütü alanlarda VK proflaksisinde yaygin bir kaygi devam etmektedir. Daha az aciliyet içeren durumlarda po verilebilir (75,76).


Tedavi

Vitamin K-1’in oral formunun emilimi için ince barsakta az miktarda safraya gerek vardir. Bu nedenle acil durumlarda kullanilamaz (4). Amerikan Pediatri Akademisi bütün yenidoganlarin ciddi kanamalari önlemek amaciyla VK injeksiyonu almalari gerektigini belirtmektedir (76).Koruyucu doz uygulanmamis bir bebekte VKDB gelisirse VK IM verilmemelidir. Vitamin K 1 mg/kg olarak yavas IV veya deri alti (SK) yapilmalidir. Derialti yapilan VK’nin emilimi hizlidir (1). Çünkü IV uygulama ile nadiren yasami tehdit eden anaflaktik reaksiyonlar ve IM uygulama ile hematomlar gözlenebilir (76). Acil durumlarda VK dilüsyonu ciddi alerjik/anaflaktik reaksiyonlara karsi dikkatli olarak IV verilebilir. Acil durumlarda 10-20 mg VK-1 %5 dekstroz veya %09 izotonik sodyum klorür içinde IV olarak 1 saatde yakin takip ile verilir. Total parenteral beslenenlerde VK-1 uygulamasi 12-24 saat içinde VK eksikligini düzeltir (76). Kanamasi olan infantlarda VK bagimli proteinlerin seviyesini hizla artiran plazma ürünleri ile tedavi verilir. Hayati tehdit eden acil kanama durumunda protrombin kompleks konsantresi, hayati tehdit etmeyen kanama durumunda plazma verilmesi düsünülür (1). Profilaktik VK almayan intraserebral hemorajili infantlarda rekombinant F VIIa uygulamasi ile koagülasyon fonksiyonlari düzeltilerek derhal cerrahi girisim yapilabilmistir (77).


Yan Etkiler

Karaciger fonksiyon bozuklugunda kontrendikedir. Laktasyon ve gebelikte uzun süre kullanim kontrendikedir. Yan etki orani %1’in altindadir. Enjeksiyon yerinde hassasiyet, geçici kizarma, tad alma bozuklugu, hipotansiyon, siyanoz, uyusukluk, kardiyopulmoner arrest, sok ve diaforez gelisebilir. Glikoz 6 fosfat dehidrogenaz eksikliginde hemoliz meydana gelebilecegi için sakinilmalidir. Intravenöz form histamin salinimini baslatmasi ile arasira ciddi anaflaksi yapar (1-3).Anne VK antagonistlerine maruz kaldigi zaman beyin ve santral sinir sistemi (SSS)’nde fetal anomaliler meydana geldigi saptanmistir (78,79). Hamile kadinlara verilen büyük miktarda VK yenidoganda sariliga yol açabilir (6). Kanser riski ispatlanmamistir. Dogumda IM VK alanlarda solid tümörler daha fazla olarak saptanmamistir. Çocukluk çagi lösemileri bakimindan durum daha az açiktir. Eger varsa da prematürite veya operatif dogum gibi nedenlerle ilgili olabilir (6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30). Vitamin K-3 doksorubisinin kemoterapotik etkilerini artirabilir. Insanlarda delili yoktur. Bir Faz I çalismada ilerlemis kanserli insanlarda IV VK-3’ün olumlu etkileri gösterilememistir. Vitamin K’nin diger formlarininda antikanser etkisi olup olmadigi bilinmemektedir (53,54).Tirozin kinaz hem immün sistem hem de hücre regülasyonu için önemli bir enzim sistemidir (83). Bu fetus, bebek ve eriskinin VK’nin asiri birikiminden korunmasi içindir (7). Yasamin ilk haftasindaki preterm bebeklerde, yasamin 2 haftasinda PIVKA tespit edilemedigi ve yüksek plazma VK seviyelerinin yan etkileri olabilecegi için daha az parenteral VK önerilmistir (51). Yeni bilgiler yüksek VK seviyesinden korunmayi desteklemektedir (16). Postnatal yasamda VK’nin düsük vücut depolari infanti VK’nin asiri birikiminden ve tirozin kinaz ligantlarin asiri desteginden koruyabilir. Insan ve hayvanlarda, yüksek VK seviyesinin yan etkileri bildirilmemis olsa da; insan fizyolojisinde bütün VK bagimli proteinlerin daha iyi bilgisine sahip olununca, preterm bebeklere daha az VK verilecegi düsünülmektedir (83). Yazinin basinda sorulan soruyu tekrarladigimizda, VK uygulanmayan 100 çocugun 1’inde kanama olacak ve 99’unda sorun çikmayacaktir. Oysa geçmis yillarda rutin VK proflaksisinin kesildigi ya da hiç uygulanmadigi ülkelerde SSS kanamasi olan yenidoganlar anlamli oranda artmistir. Vitamin K eksikligi kanamasini önlemek için, dogumdan sonra ortalama 1 saat içinde; tüm yenidoganlara 1 mg (1 dizyem) VK IM uygulanmasi zorunludur ve tercihen olarak düsünülmemelidir (1,2,3,4,5,2,3,4,5,6,7,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84).


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10. Olson RE, Chao J, Graham D, et al. Total body phylloquinone and its turnover in human subjects at two levels of vitamin K intake. Br J Nutr . 2002;87:0-0.

11. Ni R, Nishikawa Y, Carr BI. Cell growth inhibition by a novel vitamin K is associated with induction of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. J Biol Chem . 1998;273:11-9906.

12. Nulman I, Laslo D, Koren G. Treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy. Drugs 57:535-44. Published erratum appears in Drugs. . 1999;57:0-0.

13. Yamasmit W, Chaithongwongwatthana S, Tolosa JE. Prenatal vitamin K1 administration in epileptic women to prevent neonatal hemorrhage: is it effective? J Reprod Med . 2006;51:6-463.

14. Davidson RT, Foley AL, Engelke JA, Suttie JW. Conversion of dietary phylloquinone to tissue menaquinone-4 in rats is not dependent on gut bacteria. J Nutr . 1998;128:3-220.

15. Ferland G. The vitamin K-dependent proteins: an update. Nutr Rev . 1998;56:30-223.

16. Tsujioka T, Miura Y, Otsuki T, et al. The mechanisms of vitamin K2-induced apoptosis of myeloma cells. Haematologica . 2006;91:9-613.

17. Sawabu T, Seno H, Kawashima T, et al. Growth arrest-specific gene 6 and Axl signaling enhances gastric cancer cell survival via Akt pathway. Mol Carcinog. . 2006;0:0-0.

18. Matsueda K, Yamamoto H, Yoshida Y, Notohara K. Hepatoid carcinoma of the pancreas producing protein induced by vitamin K absence or antagonist II (PIVKA-II) and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). J Gastroenterol . 2006;41:0-1011.

19. Hopkins CS. Adverse reactions to a cremophor-containing preparation of intravenous vitamin K. Invasive Therapy Clin Monit . 1998;9:5-254.

20. Waddell WW, Guerry D. The role of vitamin K in the etiology, prevention, and treatment of hemorrhage in the newborn infant. J Pediatr . 1939;15:0-0.

21. Dam H, Tage-Hansen E, Plum P. Vitamin-K lack in normal and sick infants. Lancet . 1939;0:0-0.

22. Lehmann J. Vitamin K as a prophylactic in 13,000 babies. Lancet . 1944;0:0-0.

23. Sanford HN, Shmigelsky L, Chapin JM. Is administration of vitamin K to the newborn of clinical value? JAMA . 1942;118:0-0.

24. Gröntoft O. Intracranial haemorrhage and blood-brain barrier problems in the new-born: a pathologico-anatomical and experimental investigation. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand . 1954;0:0-0.

25. 25. Dunham EC. Premature infants: a manual for physicians. Washington:. 0;0:0-0.

26. Allison AC. Danger of vitamin K to newborn. [Letter] Lancet . 1955;0:0-0.

27. Mayer TC, Angus J. The effect of large doses of `Synkavit’ in the newborn. Arch Dis Child . 1956;31:0-0.

28. Asteriadou-Samartzis E, Leiken S. The relation of vitamin K to hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics . 1958;21:0-0.

29. Golding J, Greenwood R, Birmingham K, et al. Childhood cancer, intramuscular vitamin K and pethidine given during labour. BMJ . 1992;305:0-0.

30. Klebanoff MA, Read JS, Mills JL, Shiono PH. The risk of childhood cancer after neonatal exposure to vitamin K. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:8-905.

31. Cornelissen M, von Kries R, Loughnan P, et al. Prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: efficacy of different multiple oral dose schedules of vitamin K. Eur J Pediatr . 1997;156:0-0.

32. Klebanoff MA, Read JS, Mills JL, et al. The risk of childhood cancer after neonatal exposure to vitamin K. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:0-0.

33. Hilgartner MW. Vitamin K and the newborn. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:0-0.

34. 34. British Paediatric Association. Vitamin K prophylaxis in infancy. Report of an expert committee. London:. 0;0:0-0.

35. Tripp JH, McNinch AW. The vitamin K debacle: cut the Gordian knot but first do no harm. Arch Dis Child . 1998;79:0-0.

36. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Nutrition. Vitamin K compounds and the water soluble analogues. Pediatrics . 1961;28:0-0.

37. Dunn PM. Vitamin K for all newborn babies. Lancet . 1982;0:0-0.

38. American Academy of Pediatrics. Vitamin K Ad Hoc Task Force. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics . 1993;91:0-0.

39. Loughnan P, Chant KM Elliott E, et al. The frequency of late onset haemorrhagic disease in Australia with different methods of prophylaxis, 1993–1997. An update. [Abstract] J Paediatr Child Health . 1999;35:0-0.

40. Barton JS, Tripp JH, McNinch AW. Neonatal vitamin K prophylaxis in the British Isles: current practise and trends. BMJ . 1995;310:0-0.

41. Wariyar U, Hilton S, Pagan J, et al. Six years’ experience of prophylactic oral vitamin K. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2000;82:0-0.

42. Puckett RM, Offringa M. Prophylactic vitamin K for vitamin K deficiency bleeding in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2000;4:0-0.

43. 43. McNinch AW, Barton J, Tripp JH. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the British Isles and the changing pattern of vitamin K prophylaxis. In: Sutor AH, Hathaway WE, eds. Vitamin K in infancy. Stuttgart: Schattauer Verlag, 1995:. 0;0:0-0.

44. Choo KE, Tan KK, Chuah SP, et al. Haemorrhagic disease in newborn and older infants: a study of hospitalised children in Kelantan, Malasia. Ann Trop Paediatr . 1994;14:0-0.

45. Per H, Kumandas S, Ozdemir MA, Gumus H, Karakukcu M. Intracranial hemorrhage due to late hemorrhagic disease in two siblings. J Emerg Med . 2006;31:49-52.

46. Hanawa Y, Maki M, Murata B, et al. The second nation-wide survey in Japan of vitamin K deficiency in infancy. Eur J Pediatr . 1988;147:0-0.

47. Sutor AH, von Kries R, Cornelissen EA, McNinch AW, Andrew M. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) in infancy. ISTH Pediatric/Perinatal Subcommittee. International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Thromb Haemost . 1999;81:61-456.

48. Zengin E, Sarper N, Turker G, Corapcioglu F, Etus V. Late haemorrhagic disease of the newborn. Ann Trop Paediatr . 2006;26:31-225.

49. Aydinli N, Tatli B, Caliskan M, et al. .Stroke in childhood: experience in Istanbul, Turkey. J Trop Pediatr . 2006;52:0-158.

50. Greer FR, Mummah-Schendel LL, Marshall S, Suttie JW. Vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 status in the newborn during the first week life. Pediatrics . 1988;81:40-137.

51. Kumar D, Greer FR, Super DM, Suttie JW, More JJ. Vitamin K status of premature infants: implications for current recommendations. Pediatrics . 2001;108:22-1117.

52. Casas JS, Castellano EE, Couce MD, et al. A gold (I) complex with a vitamin K3 derivative: characterization and antitumoral activity. J Inorg Biochem . 2006;100:60-1858.

53. Parekh H,Chavan S, Advani S, Chitnis M. Single and combination treatment with vitamin K3 and adriamcin: in vitro effects on cell survival and DNA damage in human chronic myeloid leukemia cells. Sel Cancer Ther . 1991;7:35-127.

54. Xu CJ, Zhang Y, Wang J, Zhang TM. Menadione reduced doxorubicin resistance in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells in vitro. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao . 1998;19:6-273.

55. Kassouf W, Highshaw R, Nelkin GM, Dinney CP, Kamat AM. Vitamins C and K3 sensitize human urothelial tumors to gemcitabine. J Urol . 2006;176:7-1642.

56. Ong T, Whong WZ, Stewart J, Brockman HE. Chlorophylin: a potent antimutagen against environmenal and dietary complex mixtures. Mutation Research . 1986;173:5-111.

57. Ge L, Wang Z, Wang M, Kar S, Carr BI. Involvement of c-Myc in growth inhibition of Hep 3B human hepatoma cells by a vitamin K analog. J Hepatol . 2004;41:9-823.

58. Lim D, Morgan RJ Jr, Akman S, et al. Phase I trial of menadiol diphosphate (vitamin K3) in advanced malignancy. Invest New Drugs . 2005;23:9-235.

59. Krasinski SD, Russell RM, Furie BC. The prevalence of vitamin K deficiency in chronic gastrointestinal disorders. Am J Clin Nutr . 1985;41:43-639.

60. von Kries R. Oral versus intramuscular phytomenadione: safety and efficacy compared. Drug Saf . 1999;21:1-6.

61. von Kries R, Hachmeister A, Gobel U. Can 3 oral 2 mg doses of vitamin K effectively prevent late vitamin K deficiency bleeding? Eur J Pediatr . 1999;0:0-6.

62. von Kries R, Hachmeister MJ, Göbel U. Oral mixed micellar vitamin K for prevention of late vitamin K deficiency bleeding. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2003;88:0-0.

63. 63. Koç A, Sarraoglu S, Altintas I, Minnet C. Vitamin B12 deficiency as one the major causes of post-neonatal vitamin K deficiency. XXXth World Congress of International Society of Hematology, Abstract Book, Abstract: 356, Poster:. 0;0:0-0.

64. Tovar A, Ameho CK, Blumberg JB, Peterson JW, Smith D, Booth SL. Extrahepatic tissue concentrations of vitamin K are lower in rats fed a high vitamin E diet.Nutr Metab (Lond) . 2006;3:0-0.

65. Schaefer C. Exposure to vitamin K antagonists during pregnancy. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol . 2006;4:10-509.

66. Sells RL, Walker SA, Owen CA. Vitamin K requirements of the newborn infant. Proc Soc Exper Biol Med . 1941;47:0-0.

67. Darlow B, Harding J. Vitamin K prophylaxis in the newborn. N Z Med J . 1995;108:0-0.

68. Zipursky A. Prevention of vitamin K deficiency in newborns. Br J Haematol . 1999;106:0-0.

69. Wariyar U, Hilton S, Pagan J, Tin W, Hey E. Six years' experience of prophylactic oral vitamin K. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2000;82:0-8.

70. Loughnan PM, McDougall PN, Balvin H, Doyle LW, Smith AL. Late onset Haemorrhagic disease in premature infants who received intravenous vitamin K1. J Paediatr Child Health . 1996;32:9-268.

71. American Academy of Pediatrics. Nutritional needs of preterm infants. In: Kleinman RE, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 4th ed. Elk Grove, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. 0;1998:8-66.

72. Raith W, Fauler G, Pichler G, Muntean W. Plasma concentrations after intravenous administration of phylloquinone(vitamin K1) in preterm and sick neonates. Thromb Res . 2000;99:72-467.

73. Liu J, Wang Q, Chen YH, Qin GL, Zhao JH, Zhu LC. [Level of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors in premature infants and the influence of maternal antenatal administration of vitamin K1 on their activity] Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi . 2005;43:10-908.

74. Greer FR. Vitamin K in nutritional needs of the preterm infant: scientific basis and practical guidelines. In: Tsang RC, Lucas A, Uauy R, Zlotkin S, eds. Nutritional Needs of the preterm Infant: Scientific Basis and Practical Guidelines. Baltimore: Williams&Wilkins. 0;1993:9-111.

75. Tandoi F, Mosca F, Agosti M. Vitamin K prophylaxis: leaving the old route for the new one? Acta Paediatr Suppl . 2005;94:8-125.

76. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics . 2003;112:2-191.

77. Hubbard D, Tobias JD. Intracerebral hemorrhage due to hemorrhagic disease of the newborn and failure to administer vitamin K at birth. South Med J . 2006;99:20-1216.

78. Pauli RM, Madden JD, Kranzier JD, et al. Warfarin therapy initiated during pregnancy and phenotypic chondrodysplasia punctata. J Pediatr . 1976;88:8-506.

79. Hall JG, Pauli RM, Wilson KM. Maternal and fetal sequelae of anticoagulation during pregnancy. Am J Med . 1980;68:40-122.

80. Ansell P, Bull D, Roman E. Childhood leukaemia and intramuscular vitamin K: findings from a case-control study. BMJ . 1996;313:5-204.

81. McKinney PA, Juszczak E, Findlay E, Smith K. Case-control study of childhood leukaemia and cancer in Scotland: findings for neonatal IM vitamin K. BMJ . 1998;316:7-173.

82. Parker L, Cole M, Craft AW, Hey EN. Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study. BMJ . 1998;316:93-189.

83. Saxena SP, Israels ED, Israels LG. Novel vitamin K-dependent pathways regulating cell survival. Apopitosis . 2001;6:57-68.

84. Greer FR, Marshall SP, Severson RR, et al. A new mixed micellar preparation for oral vitamin K prophylaxis: Randomised controlled comparasion with an intramuscular formulation in breast fed infants. Arch Dis Child 199879:300-5.. 0;0:0-0.

85. Monagle P, Andrew M. Nathan and Oski’s Hematology of Infancy and Childhood, In: Nathan DG, Orkin SH, Ginsburg D, Look AT (eds), Neonatal Hematology, Developmental hemostasis: relevance to newborns and infants. 6th edition, Saunders, Philadelphia, . 2003;0:0-0.

86. Philip Lanzkowsky. Hemostasis. Manual of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology. Third Edition. Academic Press, New York. . 2000;0:0-0.

87. Sutor AH, von Kries R, Cornelissen EAM, et al. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) in infancy. Throm Haemost . 1999;81:0-0.

88. 4. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007. (847) 434-4000. http:. 0;0:0-0.

89. Muntean W. General vitamin K prevention in newborn infants. Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol . 1986;190:13-107.

90. Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academic Press. 0;2002:89-162.

91. Costakos DT, Greer FR, Love LA, Dahlen LR, Suttie JW. Am J Perinatol,2003. 0;20:485-490.

92. Hey E. Effect of maternal anticonvulsant treatment on neonatal blood coagulation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 1999;81:0-0.

93. Kaaja E, Kaaja R, Matila R, et al. Enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs and the risk of bleeding in the neonate. Neurology . 2002;58:0-0.

94. Olson RE, Chao J, Graham D, et al. Total body phylloquinone and its turnover in human subjects at two levels of vitamin K intake. Br J Nutr . 2002;87:0-0.

95. Ni R, Nishikawa Y, Carr BI. Cell growth inhibition by a novel vitamin K is associated with induction of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. J Biol Chem . 1998;273:11-9906.

96. Nulman I, Laslo D, Koren G. Treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy. Drugs 57:535-44. Published erratum appears in Drugs. . 1999;57:0-0.

97. Yamasmit W, Chaithongwongwatthana S, Tolosa JE. Prenatal vitamin K1 administration in epileptic women to prevent neonatal hemorrhage: is it effective? J Reprod Med . 2006;51:6-463.

98. Davidson RT, Foley AL, Engelke JA, Suttie JW. Conversion of dietary phylloquinone to tissue menaquinone-4 in rats is not dependent on gut bacteria. J Nutr . 1998;128:3-220.

99. Ferland G. The vitamin K-dependent proteins: an update. Nutr Rev . 1998;56:30-223.

100. Tsujioka T, Miura Y, Otsuki T, et al. The mechanisms of vitamin K2-induced apoptosis of myeloma cells. Haematologica . 2006;91:9-613.

101. Sawabu T, Seno H, Kawashima T, et al. Growth arrest-specific gene 6 and Axl signaling enhances gastric cancer cell survival via Akt pathway. Mol Carcinog. . 2006;0:0-0.

102. Matsueda K, Yamamoto H, Yoshida Y, Notohara K. Hepatoid carcinoma of the pancreas producing protein induced by vitamin K absence or antagonist II (PIVKA-II) and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). J Gastroenterol . 2006;41:0-1011.

103. Hopkins CS. Adverse reactions to a cremophor-containing preparation of intravenous vitamin K. Invasive Therapy Clin Monit . 1998;9:5-254.

104. Waddell WW, Guerry D. The role of vitamin K in the etiology, prevention, and treatment of hemorrhage in the newborn infant. J Pediatr . 1939;15:0-0.

105. Dam H, Tage-Hansen E, Plum P. Vitamin-K lack in normal and sick infants. Lancet . 1939;0:0-0.

106. Lehmann J. Vitamin K as a prophylactic in 13,000 babies. Lancet . 1944;0:0-0.

107. Sanford HN, Shmigelsky L, Chapin JM. Is administration of vitamin K to the newborn of clinical value? JAMA . 1942;118:0-0.

108. Gröntoft O. Intracranial haemorrhage and blood-brain barrier problems in the new-born: a pathologico-anatomical and experimental investigation. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand . 1954;0:0-0.

109. 25. Dunham EC. Premature infants: a manual for physicians. Washington:. 0;0:0-0.

110. Allison AC. Danger of vitamin K to newborn. [Letter] Lancet . 1955;0:0-0.

111. Mayer TC, Angus J. The effect of large doses of `Synkavit’ in the newborn. Arch Dis Child . 1956;31:0-0.

112. Asteriadou-Samartzis E, Leiken S. The relation of vitamin K to hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics . 1958;21:0-0.

113. Golding J, Greenwood R, Birmingham K, et al. Childhood cancer, intramuscular vitamin K and pethidine given during labour. BMJ . 1992;305:0-0.

114. Klebanoff MA, Read JS, Mills JL, Shiono PH. The risk of childhood cancer after neonatal exposure to vitamin K. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:8-905.

115. Cornelissen M, von Kries R, Loughnan P, et al. Prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: efficacy of different multiple oral dose schedules of vitamin K. Eur J Pediatr . 1997;156:0-0.

116. Klebanoff MA, Read JS, Mills JL, et al. The risk of childhood cancer after neonatal exposure to vitamin K. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:0-0.

117. Hilgartner MW. Vitamin K and the newborn. N Engl J Med . 1993;329:0-0.

118. 34. British Paediatric Association. Vitamin K prophylaxis in infancy. Report of an expert committee. London:. 0;0:0-0.

119. Tripp JH, McNinch AW. The vitamin K debacle: cut the Gordian knot but first do no harm. Arch Dis Child . 1998;79:0-0.

120. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Nutrition. Vitamin K compounds and the water soluble analogues. Pediatrics . 1961;28:0-0.

121. Dunn PM. Vitamin K for all newborn babies. Lancet . 1982;0:0-0.

122. American Academy of Pediatrics. Vitamin K Ad Hoc Task Force. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics . 1993;91:0-0.

123. Loughnan P, Chant KM Elliott E, et al. The frequency of late onset haemorrhagic disease in Australia with different methods of prophylaxis, 1993–1997. An update. [Abstract] J Paediatr Child Health . 1999;35:0-0.

124. Barton JS, Tripp JH, McNinch AW. Neonatal vitamin K prophylaxis in the British Isles: current practise and trends. BMJ . 1995;310:0-0.

125. Wariyar U, Hilton S, Pagan J, et al. Six years’ experience of prophylactic oral vitamin K. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2000;82:0-0.

126. Puckett RM, Offringa M. Prophylactic vitamin K for vitamin K deficiency bleeding in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2000;4:0-0.

127. 43. McNinch AW, Barton J, Tripp JH. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the British Isles and the changing pattern of vitamin K prophylaxis. In: Sutor AH, Hathaway WE, eds. Vitamin K in infancy. Stuttgart: Schattauer Verlag, 1995:. 0;0:0-0.

128. Choo KE, Tan KK, Chuah SP, et al. Haemorrhagic disease in newborn and older infants: a study of hospitalised children in Kelantan, Malasia. Ann Trop Paediatr . 1994;14:0-0.

129. Per H, Kumandas S, Ozdemir MA, Gumus H, Karakukcu M. Intracranial hemorrhage due to late hemorrhagic disease in two siblings. J Emerg Med . 2006;31:49-52.

130. Hanawa Y, Maki M, Murata B, et al. The second nation-wide survey in Japan of vitamin K deficiency in infancy. Eur J Pediatr . 1988;147:0-0.

131. Sutor AH, von Kries R, Cornelissen EA, McNinch AW, Andrew M. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) in infancy. ISTH Pediatric/Perinatal Subcommittee. International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Thromb Haemost . 1999;81:61-456.

132. Zengin E, Sarper N, Turker G, Corapcioglu F, Etus V. Late haemorrhagic disease of the newborn. Ann Trop Paediatr . 2006;26:31-225.

133. Aydinli N, Tatli B, Caliskan M, et al. .Stroke in childhood: experience in Istanbul, Turkey. J Trop Pediatr . 2006;52:0-158.

134. Greer FR, Mummah-Schendel LL, Marshall S, Suttie JW. Vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 status in the newborn during the first week life. Pediatrics . 1988;81:40-137.

135. Kumar D, Greer FR, Super DM, Suttie JW, More JJ. Vitamin K status of premature infants: implications for current recommendations. Pediatrics . 2001;108:22-1117.

136. Casas JS, Castellano EE, Couce MD, et al. A gold (I) complex with a vitamin K3 derivative: characterization and antitumoral activity. J Inorg Biochem . 2006;100:60-1858.

137. Parekh H,Chavan S, Advani S, Chitnis M. Single and combination treatment with vitamin K3 and adriamcin: in vitro effects on cell survival and DNA damage in human chronic myeloid leukemia cells. Sel Cancer Ther . 1991;7:35-127.

138. Xu CJ, Zhang Y, Wang J, Zhang TM. Menadione reduced doxorubicin resistance in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells in vitro. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao . 1998;19:6-273.

139. Kassouf W, Highshaw R, Nelkin GM, Dinney CP, Kamat AM. Vitamins C and K3 sensitize human urothelial tumors to gemcitabine. J Urol . 2006;176:7-1642.

140. Ong T, Whong WZ, Stewart J, Brockman HE. Chlorophylin: a potent antimutagen against environmenal and dietary complex mixtures. Mutation Research . 1986;173:5-111.

141. Ge L, Wang Z, Wang M, Kar S, Carr BI. Involvement of c-Myc in growth inhibition of Hep 3B human hepatoma cells by a vitamin K analog. J Hepatol . 2004;41:9-823.

142. Lim D, Morgan RJ Jr, Akman S, et al. Phase I trial of menadiol diphosphate (vitamin K3) in advanced malignancy. Invest New Drugs . 2005;23:9-235.

143. Krasinski SD, Russell RM, Furie BC. The prevalence of vitamin K deficiency in chronic gastrointestinal disorders. Am J Clin Nutr . 1985;41:43-639.

144. von Kries R. Oral versus intramuscular phytomenadione: safety and efficacy compared. Drug Saf . 1999;21:1-6.

145. von Kries R, Hachmeister A, Gobel U. Can 3 oral 2 mg doses of vitamin K effectively prevent late vitamin K deficiency bleeding? Eur J Pediatr . 1999;0:0-6.

146. von Kries R, Hachmeister MJ, Göbel U. Oral mixed micellar vitamin K for prevention of late vitamin K deficiency bleeding. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2003;88:0-0.

147. 63. Koç A, Sarraoglu S, Altintas I, Minnet C. Vitamin B12 deficiency as one the major causes of post-neonatal vitamin K deficiency. XXXth World Congress of International Society of Hematology, Abstract Book, Abstract: 356, Poster:. 0;0:0-0.

148. Tovar A, Ameho CK, Blumberg JB, Peterson JW, Smith D, Booth SL. Extrahepatic tissue concentrations of vitamin K are lower in rats fed a high vitamin E diet.Nutr Metab (Lond) . 2006;3:0-0.

149. Schaefer C. Exposure to vitamin K antagonists during pregnancy. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol . 2006;4:10-509.

150. Sells RL, Walker SA, Owen CA. Vitamin K requirements of the newborn infant. Proc Soc Exper Biol Med . 1941;47:0-0.

151. Darlow B, Harding J. Vitamin K prophylaxis in the newborn. N Z Med J . 1995;108:0-0.

152. Zipursky A. Prevention of vitamin K deficiency in newborns. Br J Haematol . 1999;106:0-0.

153. Wariyar U, Hilton S, Pagan J, Tin W, Hey E. Six years' experience of prophylactic oral vitamin K. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 2000;82:0-8.

154. Loughnan PM, McDougall PN, Balvin H, Doyle LW, Smith AL. Late onset Haemorrhagic disease in premature infants who received intravenous vitamin K1. J Paediatr Child Health . 1996;32:9-268.

155. American Academy of Pediatrics. Nutritional needs of preterm infants. In: Kleinman RE, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 4th ed. Elk Grove, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. 0;1998:8-66.

156. Raith W, Fauler G, Pichler G, Muntean W. Plasma concentrations after intravenous administration of phylloquinone(vitamin K1) in preterm and sick neonates. Thromb Res . 2000;99:72-467.

157. Liu J, Wang Q, Chen YH, Qin GL, Zhao JH, Zhu LC. [Level of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors in premature infants and the influence of maternal antenatal administration of vitamin K1 on their activity] Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi . 2005;43:10-908.

158. Greer FR. Vitamin K in nutritional needs of the preterm infant: scientific basis and practical guidelines. In: Tsang RC, Lucas A, Uauy R, Zlotkin S, eds. Nutritional Needs of the preterm Infant: Scientific Basis and Practical Guidelines. Baltimore: Williams&Wilkins. 0;1993:9-111.

159. Tandoi F, Mosca F, Agosti M. Vitamin K prophylaxis: leaving the old route for the new one? Acta Paediatr Suppl . 2005;94:8-125.

160. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. Pediatrics . 2003;112:2-191.

161. Hubbard D, Tobias JD. Intracerebral hemorrhage due to hemorrhagic disease of the newborn and failure to administer vitamin K at birth. South Med J . 2006;99:20-1216.

162. Pauli RM, Madden JD, Kranzier JD, et al. Warfarin therapy initiated during pregnancy and phenotypic chondrodysplasia punctata. J Pediatr . 1976;88:8-506.

163. Hall JG, Pauli RM, Wilson KM. Maternal and fetal sequelae of anticoagulation during pregnancy. Am J Med . 1980;68:40-122.

164. Ansell P, Bull D, Roman E. Childhood leukaemia and intramuscular vitamin K: findings from a case-control study. BMJ . 1996;313:5-204.

165. McKinney PA, Juszczak E, Findlay E, Smith K. Case-control study of childhood leukaemia and cancer in Scotland: findings for neonatal IM vitamin K. BMJ . 1998;316:7-173.

166. Parker L, Cole M, Craft AW, Hey EN. Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study. BMJ . 1998;316:93-189.

167. Saxena SP, Israels ED, Israels LG. Novel vitamin K-dependent pathways regulating cell survival. Apopitosis . 2001;6:57-68.

168. Greer FR, Marshall SP, Severson RR, et al. A new mixed micellar preparation for oral vitamin K prophylaxis: Randomised controlled comparasion with an intramuscular formulation in breast fed infants. Arch Dis Child 199879:300-5.. 0;0:0-0.

169. Monagle P, Andrew M. Nathan and Oski’s Hematology of Infancy and Childhood, In: Nathan DG, Orkin SH, Ginsburg D, Look AT (eds), Neonatal Hematology, Developmental hemostasis: relevance to newborns and infants. 6th edition, Saunders, Philadelphia, . 2003;0:0-0.

170. Philip Lanzkowsky. Hemostasis. Manual of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology. Third Edition. Academic Press, New York. . 2000;0:0-0.

171. Sutor AH, von Kries R, Cornelissen EAM, et al. Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) in infancy. Throm Haemost . 1999;81:0-0.

172. 4. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, IL 60007. (847) 434-4000. http:. 0;0:0-0.

173. Muntean W. General vitamin K prevention in newborn infants. Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol . 1986;190:13-107.

174. Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academic Press. 0;2002:89-162.

175. Costakos DT, Greer FR, Love LA, Dahlen LR, Suttie JW. Am J Perinatol,2003. 0;20:485-490.

176. Hey E. Effect of maternal anticonvulsant treatment on neonatal blood coagulation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 1999;81:0-0.

177. Kaaja E, Kaaja R, Matila R, et al. Enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs and the risk of bleeding in the neonate. Neurology . 2002;58:0-0.

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